Sailing to Byzantium - 9

Detail of a secular mosaic from the vaulted ceilings of the private apartments of Roger II

By the middle of the 10^th Century, New Rome or the Byzantine Empire extended as far west as the Straits of Messina. These boundaries were hard to secure and maintain; threats to this medieval superpower would emerge quick and fast principally through the Bulgars, Russians, Venetians, Avars and Slavs, Normans and Saracens who were a persistent threat.

The Normans moved south and invaded Bari by 1071. Under Roger II of Sicily [1095 - 1154] they took control of Calabria, Apulia, Capua and Sicily by means of an astute combination of inheritance, military manoeuvrings and the creation of political alliances through marriage and dowries and most possibly bribes as well, all of which were standard operating procedures in the medieval world; the Kingdom of Two Sicilies would remain intact for another 800 years. Roger II was not on diplomatic terms with the Byzantines and ordered George of Antioch, his Emir [Admiral], to carry out attacks. During 1147 Athens, Corfu and Corinth were attacked. The port of Palermo remained pivotal in the Mediterranean; trade, commerce, and routes of communication between east and west were more important than ever.

By reaching Palermo, we have not quite reached the borders of the Byzantine world but have most certainly entered its sphere of influence. The mosaics in the Cathedrals at Cefalu and Monreale, and in the Cappella Palatina and Chiesa Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio in Palermo are testament to Sicilian ruling family’s taste for Byzantine mosaic decoration on a monumental scale. The court of Roger II and his immediate successors decorated their palaces and churches with a splendour matching those of Byzantium. What remains of the architectural style and design of the other decoration also reveals a strong Islamic influence, which is not surprising when one considers the diversity of individuals, and tolerance of creed and race employed in the enlightened 12^th Century court at Palermo.

Roger II being crowned by Christ, Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio

Among the mosaics that survive in the church of Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio there is a depiction of Roger II being crowned by no less a figure than Christ. This must have been a controversial image at the time as regents were normally portrayed being crowned by the Pope or a Bishop. In the cut and thrust of 12^th century medieval politics Roger had a unstable relationship with the papacy and this unorthodox portrayal may have been an irreverent attack on the pope for failing to recognise his crown until 1130.

Roger II commissioned the Capella Palatina in 1132, two years after his coronation and in the midst of numerous battles and sieges on the Italian mainland and shores. The mosaic decoration was added in stages from the 1140s. The Cathedral at Cefalu was commenced in 1131 but the mosaics do not appear to have been commenced until 1148. The smalln church of Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio, known as La Matorana, was commissioned by George of Antioch and was also commenced by the early 1140s. Last but not least, the Cathedral at Monreale was commissioned by William II and commenced in 1172; it was completed ten years later. Nearly every surface is decorated with in magnificent splendour of mosaic and marble on a scale which is quite remarkable. The mosaics are a great testament to a masterful atelier of Mosaic workers, presumably Byzantine craftsmen. However, I have yet to discover on what terms they were retained for their work. Were they commissioned and patronised for their work in the normal way? Or was an atelier of mosaic workers taken captive in the same way George of Antioch seized the Jewish silk workers from Thebes?

Chist Pantocrator, Monreale

To a large extent the decoration and images conform to a formula tailored to the requirements of the multi faceted Norman interiors; the domes of the churches and apses of the Cathedrals are decorated with Christ Pantocrator. Beneath the churches hemispherical cupolas and decorating the lower register, niche like pendentives, and supporting arches are in hierarchical order the prophets, angels and evangelists. Appearing above the aisles of the Cappella Palatina, Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio and the Cathedral at Monreale, and in proximity to the scenes from the Old and New Testaments, are cycles relating to the lives of Saint Peter and Saint Paul.

Deorated Cupola and suports at Santa Maria dell'Ammiragglio

A detail of the mosaics and structure at Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio

The decorated cupola and supports at the Cappella Palatina

Photographing the mosaics in these locations has been a challenge. The light changes constantly and every image is different in colour and tone due to the variations in available light; as the suns rays are interrupted by small amounts of cloud cover being blown rapidly across the sky, resulting in an assortment of images as the light waxes and wanes. Often it was possible to sit and watch as colours, elements, definition and perspective changed by the second. At Cefalu there were very few people in the cathedral, six or seven. A woman stood up and silently moved towards the front of the nave. She straightened her arms by her side and began a Latin castrato chant With the opening two bars she found the right pitch and harmony as the chant found its perfect place in the firmament of mosaic in the tall Norman Cathedral as the soft clouds moved overhead and the waves rolled onto to the long sandy beach of Cefalu.

The Apsidal end at Cefalu Cathedral

A view of Cefalu

Roger II chose to decorate his private apartments in the Palazzo dei Normanni which also houses the Cappella Palatina. The walls and vaulted ceilings capture every available ray of light in the dimly lit room and shimmer with their golden mosaics decorated with arabesques portraying leopards, lions, peacocks, griffons and centaurs. Representations of archers hunting deer, stylised palm trees and vegetation all combine to make a sumptuous environment.

Detail of a secular mosaic from the vaulted ceilings of the private apartments of Roger II

The Cathedral of Monreale is one of the greatest extant examples of Norman Architecture. It was begun in 1174 by William II and in 1182 the church, dedicated to the Assumption of the Virgin Mary. The mosaics follow a similar pattern to those in the Capella Palatina and record a number of stories and episodes form the life of Christ, the Old Testament, and cycles relating to the lives of Saint Peter and Saint Paul. Other roundels and decoration depict the saints, but notably William II is also depicted in much the same way as his grandfather being crowned by Christ.

The apsidal end of Monreale Cathedral

The building of the tower of babel

The covenent of the rainbow, Monreale

Jacob's dream, Monreale

The Chiesa San Cataldo offers a stark contrast to the other Norman 12^th century churches and a reminder of the age that created them. It is situated beside La Matorana on Piazza Bellini. This church was commissioned in 1160 by Maione da Bari, an Emir in the service of William I, Roger II’s successor. The unpopularity of Maione da Bari was widespread and he was assassinated in the same year while in the company of the Bishop of Palermo, Hugh of the Mill; the plots and intrigues at the court in Palermo were clearly every bit as interesting as those in Byzantium. Without patronage the church remains undecorated to this day apart from the inlaid marble floors. However, the lack of decoration in the interior still leaves this space being is one of the most atmospheric and peaceful spaces among the Norman churches in Sicily.

The interior of San Cataldo

The Arab-Norman exterior of San Cataldo with the campanile of Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio in the background