A day trip to Orange and the Roman theatre

Roman theatre at Orange, view of the scaenae frons

Originally in planning our trip to Lyon I thought we might base ourselves in Orange for a night or two and travel to Arles and Nimes. Upon reflection this itinerary would have proved to be impossible and require us to rush form place to place. Ultimately we would not have had enough time to enjoy Lyon. Consequently we confined ourselves to a day trip to Orange. Corinne fanatasized about an increase in the temperature, however despite the bright sunshine this never materialised. Our route south during the morning bore witness the gradual build of the increasingly chilly wind which followed our route down the valley of the Rhone. Thoughts of peeling off a few layers of warm clothing disappeared and she put on an extra fleece to retain some warmth in the cold air.

 

 A view of the Roman theatre in Orange by Hippolyte Destailleur (1822 - 1893)

The Romans settled in the area were veterans of the second Gallic Legion. This settlement is reputed to have taken place occurred in or about 35 B.C. close to the site of a Gallic hill fort, home to the Tricastini tribe. The site was named Colonia Julia Secundanorum Arausio. Today one can view the well preserved  monuments built by these Roman settlers; the theatre and triumphal arch. Arausio became an administrative centre for the region of modern day northern Provence, a few kilometers from the river Rhone, and enjoyed a certain amount of stability until it was sacked by the Visigoths in 412 A.D. As such you would expect to find more evidence of Roman life in the local museum but its collection is quite limited and confined to finds associated with the theatre. This having been said the significance of the Roman architecture in the town has been recognised, and the site was listed by UNESCO in 1981.

Roman theatre at Orange, view of the cavea looking north west

Roman theatre at Orange, view of the passage access to the upper media cavea 

The theatre was built during the reign of Augustus [31 B.C. - 14 A.D.] and similar to many Roman theatres in Gaul the theatre in Orange utilises the steep rocky hillside of Saint-Eutrope to support the middle of the cavea. The theatre ranks as a medium size theatre in Roman Gaul measuring 103 meters in diameter. One can only begin to imagine and marvel at the massive scale of the structure that was built at Autun (Augustodunum) which measured approximately 148 meters in diameter.  The theatre was restored and embellished during the Hadrianic period [117 A.D. - 138 A.D.]. Either side of the theatre an arcaded perimeter wall contains stairwells providing access to barrel vaulted tunnels and the summa and media cavea. Similar to many Roman theatres, to the west of the theatre at Orange a large temple complex was constrcted into a hemicycle, again dictated by the hillside of Saint-Eutrope.

The theatre is most notable for the fact that the scaenae frons is still standing. the guide states that it is the only one in Europe still standing and draws comparison to the other scaenae frons structures still visible today at Aspendos in Turkey. Viewed from the street this wall is on a monumental scale standing 37 meters tall. The street side of the wall still has the series of corbels used to support masts from which a vela or cover was suspended over the theatre. Today all that remains on the surface treatment of the wall are some imitation arches in low relief. The wall facing the cavea would have been richly decorated with architectural ornament including columns, statuary and possibly mosaic on a number of levels.

 

Roman theatre at Orange, view of the cavea and scaenae frons from the hill of Saint-Eutrope

The scaenae frons was vitally important to the function and acoustics of the theatre. Vitruvius, who would have been alive for a portion of the reign of Augustus, set out in his ten book treatise, De Architectura, the importance and attributes of the scaena frons and its role in acoustics. The fifth Book deals with the Theatre and its construction and he makes the following comments:
"The roof of the colonnade to be built at the top of the rows of seats, should lie level with the top of the scaena, for the reason that the voice will then rise with equal power until it reaches the highest rows of seats and the roof. If the roof is not so high, in proportion as it is lower, it will check the voice at the point which the sound first reaches."
More recently studies have sought to examine and understand the acoustic effects of the Roman theatre and come to the conclusion that they worked very effectively; for reasons that would embarrass modern concert hall designers who would appear to depend on sound systems to control acoustics.

Roman theatre at Orange, view from Rue de la Republique of the scaenae frons wall

The structure was most likely abandoned as a theatre by the end of the 4th Century and was occupied for other purposes until the 19th Century. The precincts of the theatre were known to have been used as a prison, a fort, and occupied by the town's townspeople until the restoration commenced. By 1869 a series of annual shows were initiated; held during the Summer they were called "Fetes Romaines".

Contemporary drawings depict the theatre in a variety of conditions but an engraving from Gazette des Beaux-Arts published in 1861 depicts the cavea without seating and the arcing contours of the hillside which opens in places revealing the substructure of the cavea and the vaulted passages. The restoration of the theatre was begun in 1825 under the instructions of Prosper Merimee, Directer of Historic Monuments. The initial challenge, like similar ancient structures in the south of France, was to demolish the dwellings incorporated into and adjacent to the theatre. These works continued for many years and were overseen directly by Simon-Claude Constant-Defeux from 1856 to 1858. Later excavations were undertaken by the architect and archaeologist, Jules Formige, who also worked on the theatre at Arles and amphitheatres at Frejus and Lutece, in Paris. In the early 20th Century and is credited with discovering numerous articles now associated with the scaenae frons structure.

Theatre at Orange from Gazette des Beaux-Arts, Volume 11, 1861

Upon arrival at the site, I climbed up to the top of Saint-Eutrope to get a better vantage point when the sun was going to be at its highest point during the day. The sun's low flight across the early February sky meant that the hill of Saint-Eutrope placed most of the cavea in a cool shade. In contrast the immense scaena frons was exposed to bright sunshine and the white marble statue, said to be that of Augustus, was radiant in its niche. Afterwards we explored the theatre itself which it is estimated could seat up to 7,300 spectators. Wandering around the structure today you can experience the scale and atmosphere of one of the best preserved a Roman theatres. Viewing the theatre from Saint-Eutrope is a vertigo inducing experience but is in my opinion the only way to get a good look at the entirety of the theatre and put in a context of the surrounding countryside.

 The triumphal arch at Orange, view from the south

About half a kilometer to the north of the theatre can be found the Roman triumphal arch. The construction date of the triumphal arch at Orange is not easy to pin down because of the inscription evidence. If one is to interpret the inscription evidence associated with the arch it is easy to form the view that the construction was a prolonged process probably beginning under the reign of Augustus [31 B.C. - 14 A.D.] to honour the veterans of the Gallic Wars settled in the area, and later either embellished or remodeled under the reign of Tiberius [14 A.D. - 37A.D.] to commemorate the victories of Germanicus [16 B.C.? - 19 A.D.] in the Rhineland and of course Tiberius himself. This arch is important for a number of reasons; the arch is a provincial precursor to the more famous monumental triumphal arches of Septimius Severus [193 A.D. - 211 A.D.] and Constantine [306 A.D. - 337 A.D.] in Rome, having the principal arch in the centre and a minor arch to either side, and a sequence of four Corinthinan columns ranging across the facade. The decoration and inscriptions are well recorded, thanks to the restoration work, but despite the two thousand years which have passed since its construction much of the architectural ornament and sculptural reliefs, which are cut in limestone, are in reasonably good condition.

Impression of the Arch at Orange prior to restoration in 1825 from Gazette des Beaux-Arts,

Volume 11, 1861

 The triumphal arch at Orange, view from the north

The arch itself measures 19.57 meters long, 8.4 meters wide and 19.21 meters tall. The sculptural decoration that would have been placed on the attic story no longer exists but would have raised the overall height considerably. The arch was restored during the 1820s by the architect Augustin Caristie and another person called Renaux, who are also associated with the works being carried out the theatre at this time. The arch had been incorporated into the medeval walls of Orange and the first task was to liberate and isolate the structure.

 The triumphal arch at Orange, detail of relief above the right hand arch on the south side

Caristie is accredited with a very judicious and sympathetic restoration. The careful manner in which he undertook this task has made it possible for us to enjoy this important Roman piece of urban imperial and historical architecture. 

Many of the reliefs on the north and south sides depict typical trophy displays of shields, above them are motifs related to marine warfare such as tridents and anchors. The naval references in the arch may be a direct reference to the victory of Augustus at Actium in 31 B.C. The majority of these reliefs are in low relief, however the trophy scenes on the short sides were sculpted in high relief. These six panels, two destroyed on the west side, depicted the battledress, helmets, standards and trumpets and captives.

 The triumphal arch at Orange, view from the north and reconstructed west side

The battle relief on the attic story of the north side remains in good condition. Originally there may have been other bronze objects applied to the relief to add detail and embellishment but these have disappeared. The scene depicts a chaotic combat scene with the naked Gaulish tribesmen being killed and overpowered by the Roman Legionaries. The Roman Second Legion has been identified on a panel by the use of the Capricorn motif on the shield of an officer. The settlers and their descendants must have had certain amount of pride in the arch and what it commemorated; the victory over the Gaulish tribes was not to be forgotten and the arch guaranteed this.

 The triumphal arch at Orange, detail of a battle relief from the attic story

Returning to Lyon, I set my heart on exploring Vienne for a day and Corinne's thoughts leaned in the direction of shopping and staying in Lyon. I was amazed by the theatre and triumphal arch at Orange, but I admit I was overwhelmed by the the Roman building program at Vienne, and hope to relate my experience of some of them in the next entry.

Autun - Augustodunum Roman Theatre

View of the remains of the Roman theatre from the road

On the 23rd December we decided to venture outside the Franche-Comte region and made our way westwards towards Burgundy and the city of Autun. Crossing the Saone you are greeted by the flat Burgundian countryside, however once you pass the quaint city of Beaune the road meanders its way through Pommard and Volnay, and other familiar wine producing towns, the terrain slowly dominated by long sweeping hills covered in vines.

Before I set out for Autun I had some understanding of the towns significance, primarily becauce of the size of the theatre situated there, however I was not prepared for the extent and size of the this Gallo-Roman settlement. Nearby in Burgundy a number of sattelite towns were romanised such as Dijon, Nuits-St-Georges and Chalon-sur-Saone, but they do not appear to have had the same amount of sustained development during the Roman period.

View of the Roman gate from the river Arroux

Augustodunum was founded by the Emperor Augustus and replaced Bibracte, the capital town of the Aedui tribe. Bibracte was, by this time, a modernised but dated iron age hilltop fort settlement. which was situated about 15 miles to the west of Augustodunum. It had the unfortunate fate of being the site where Vercingetorix was nominated as commander of the Gallic forces in their war against the Roman army, which was under the command of Julius Caesar. This may have been a catylist for the founding of the new Roman grid based capital city with all the trimmings such as walls, gates, forum, thermae, theatre, amphitheatre and aquaducts for the Aedui at Augustodunum, and with it the imposition of an urban administrative and political center in the area. However, Bibracte may simply not have suited the Roman requirements to support their model of a "civilised" urban center and hence a new site was selected bording on and serviced by the Arroux river.

It is not simplistic to state that Augustodunum flourished because of an acceptance of Roman power by the Aedui. The Aedui had a long established alliance with Rome and this "bond of brotherhood" is referred to by Tacitus [Annals xi 25.2] and Julius Caesar [Bello Gallico i. 33.2]. The foundation of the Gallic cities in the early empire appears to have been an attempt to define the bounderies of the tribes and a number of these cities received Imperial patronage. Thus there is a distinct difference between the founding and subsequent development of the cities of Gallia Narbonnensis such as Nimes, Arles, Frejus, and Nice. This period of reorganisation in the north under Augustus resulted in the modest naming of cities such as Augustodurum [Bayeux], Augustobona [Troyes].

The development of Augustodunum may not have been swift and there is evidence that the city was developed throughout the 1st century and continued into the second century. In fact archeological evidence suggests that the theatre and amphitheatre may not have been completed until the reign of Vespasian. A possible terminus post quem dating for this building is based upon a bronze coin from the reign of Vespasian which was found in the theatre's structure. It is feasible to suggest that the city's development and exspansion may have been temporarily stalled during a Gallic revolt during the reign of Tibeius in 21 B.C. when an Aeduan named Iulius Sacrovir was stirring up dissent. One contributory factor for the revolt was the overwhelming Gallic dissatisfaction at the extortionate taxes levied by the Romans. Iulius Sacrovir's uprising was dealt with by the German legions and in his flight he was denied entry to Augustodunum. Shortly after Sacrovir chose his own fate. There are contradictory views asa top what extent the city was developed following the end of the 2nd century, and one treatise states that the dwellings and buildings in the city never filled the 6 kilometer walled defences due to the political and economic turmoil that existed in the 3rd century.

The Gallo Roman city of Augustodunum must have been well populated given its size, and the size of the theatre and amphitheatre complex. Scholars warn us that the existence of these large public buildings are not a reliable guide to city population but it seems wasteful to build such structures when they would not have been exploited to the full. From a brief walk around the city today and reading the available text upon the archeological surverys it is clear that there was more than one theatre and an ampitheatre in existance when the Augustodunum was in its hey day.

A fragment of mosaic pavement from the Musee Lapidaire, Autun

We did not get into the Musee Rolin where a number of good Roman mosaics that have been unearthed in Autun are kept. The collection includes fragments of a Neptune mosaic and a mosaic depicting a seated philospher. One theory suggests that the person depicted is Epicurios. During the Roman period Augustodunum became noted for its school of rhethoric and as a seat of learning. Thus the discovery of such a mosaic must not be too surprising. Given the obvious importance of this Roman city one can only imagine what discoveries lie in wait below the streets and buildings of Autun.

A corinthian capital from the Musee Lapidaire, Autun

Augustodunum is said to have embraced christianity earlier than most Roman cities, and certainly by the 3rd century there was a large christian community reported to be there. Some historians attribute this thriving of the Christian community at Augustodunum to Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine the Great, who was based in the West under the emperor Diocletion.

funerary stele of a young women embedded into the wall of a building

Many funerary stele are laid out in courtyard of the Musee Lapidaire at the Roman Church of St Nicholas, and some appear built into the walls of more modern structures in the town. The Musee Lapidaire was closed when we were there, however the gates were open to receive some new stones for their collection and we managed to wander in and take a few photographs. Within the small church there is a small collection of capitals and some sculpture, presumably from Autun itself as there was very little information relating to the artifacts. A number of mosaic fragments have also been preserved there.

A large gallo-roman necropolis, which was excavated in 2004, is situarted about 600 meters to the north east of the ramparts and some of the stele have made their way into this collection, which appears to be an overflow facility for the Musee Rolin. The necropolis had circa 48- tombs with 79 stele reported to have been excavated intact.

Funerary stele of a women holding a chalice and rod

The Roman theatre, like the one at Mandeure was built into a natural hillside, and consisted of three layers of seating or cavea. The diameter of the theatre is 148 meters making it one of the largest in the Roman world, with a potential capacity of 13,800 (there are higher and less conservativre estimates for the capacity of this structure in the tourist information). The theatre at Mandeure, which was built during the 2nd century faces West, and the theatre at Autun utilises a hilside facing east-north-east. From about 14:30, when I was there, it was almost fully shaded in its current state not receiving any light from the setting sun. The semi-circular orchestra area infront of the scenae is reported to have been reduced in size from 30 to 20 meters. To put this into perspective, the orchestra at Mandeure measures 14 metres.

A view looking south east across the media cava and remains of supports for summa cavea

It is clear from the remaining structures today that the media cavea and summa cavea ie. the second and third layers of seating were substantial and were supported on a series of 49 vaults so that the full height of the structure could be achieved. It appears that each of the cavea were divided by a series of 8 cunei giving access to the rows of seating. Beyond the summa cavea there was probably an arcaded and covered ambulatory or ambulorum. The end structures are largely in ruins but a series of six niches acted as supports or butresses can still be seen. There was a scene building but this no longer exists however, archeological excavations have recorded the existence of some structures below the soil surface which can be conected with a scene building.

A view looking south east towards the orchestra ima cavea and media cavea

Today trees planted around the perimeter of the theatre give some indication of the original shape and to some extent the size of the structure. The vomitoria to either side of the cavea are not as large as those in Mandeure probably because there was access available to the rear of the structure where none was possible in Mandeure.

A view looking north towards the remains of the media cavea and reconstructed ima cavea

Looking down from a tree onto the remains of the summa cavea, orchestra and scaena area

Augustodunum was probably the most western city of an economic group of Roman cities and tribal groupings, which appear to have thrived during the 1st and 2nd centuries; studies of carved and decorated stonework including capitals from Avenches (Aventicum), Besancon (Vesontio), Mandeure (Epamanduodorum), Nyon (Noiodunum), and a little later Augst (Augusta Raurica), share similarities which would suggest a possible common regional link. The reigns of Claudius, 41 - 57 A.D. and Vespasian, 70 - 79 A.D., brought stability and confidence to the region by elevating some Roman cities to the status of colonia, and granting latin rights including citizenship. The fact that these cities have monumental public buildings, some being the largest of their type in the empire, interests me. It is evident there was a concerted effort made to develop these provincial cities that were quite close to the Rhine and Danube borders. I hope future travels will bring me to visit the large Roman theatres and amphithatres at Augst, Avenches and Nyon and to understand a little more about the interaction between these cities during the Roman period.

Gislebertus and the story of the three Magi

Detail from a carved capital from the Cathedral of St Lazare at Autun

The Cathedral of St Lazare at Autun sets itself apart from other early 12th Century Romanesque churches primarily because of the extraordinary sculpture and reliefs carved on the capitals and tympanum over the west door. This decorative work was carried out between 1125 and 1135. In a margin bar of the tympanum below the feet of the carved image of Christ enthroned at the last judgment a very public and unique Latin inscription has been carved: "GISLEBERTVS hOC FECiT" , which translated means Gislebertus made this.

This inscription, often interpreted in modern terms as a signature, is the basis for one of the most enduring mysteries in the history of art. Sculpture executed at the Abbey of Cluny and at the Cathedral at Vezelay has been linked stylistically to the carvings executed at Autun. If we are to believe it is a signature of sorts, the obvious assumption is that the reliefs at the Cathedral at Autun are the work of a highly celebrated artist and sculptor. Assumptions are at their weakest especially when there is little or no evidence to support them, and questions remain unanswered. Who was Gislebertus? A monk or an enlightened artist, or both. Was Gislebertus the sculptor responsible for these sculptures and in particular the carvings at Autun? Was Gislebertus a patron of the church or a nobleman who commissioned works such as this? Is the inscription contemporary with the production of the tympanum panel? Was the inscription executed by Gislebertus himself? Would a mere artisan sculptor have been allowed to carve an inscription in such a prominent and visible place?

In the last 150 years a number of scholarly works have attempted to tease out theories based upon a combination of assessments and examinations of the social history and orders of Burgundy during the 12th Century, nomenclature, and stylistic comparisons and interpretations. Unfortunately, time has eroded the flesh, blood and memory of Gislebertus, and the inscription remains the only relic of his existence. Ironically, down through the years the Cathedral of St Lazare at Autun is noted for a number of famous relics of celebrated saints which were at first undisputed and then disputed.

It is conceivable that the mystery of Gislebertus will never be solved, but the carvings remain as a group and individually, some of the most outstanding and imaginative interpretations of biblical scenes from the entire medieval era. As we approach the 6th January I set out below images of the carved capitals depicting the story of the Magi.

Angel appearing to the three Magi and the star above their heads

The Magi summoned before Herod

The adoration of the Magi

The flight into Egypt