A short trip to Lyon - Gallia Lugdunensis 1

A view across the Rhone towards Notre Dame de Fourviere

It was 20 years since I had been to Lyon and back then I did not stop for too long before moving on to my ultimate destination to the southeast of Lyon. For this trip, at the end of January, I decided to read up on Lyon to identify a few sights I would like to visit and add to my basic knowledge of the city, and its culture. I decided to refer to Elizabeth David's book on Provincial French Cooking, but I was surprised at her comments. She was of the opinion that one must be a Lyonnais to properly appreciate the local cooking and then proceeded to moan in an unappreciative manner about the anti climax that she experienced from the fountainhead of French cuisine. I suppose I should not be surprised to read this from somebody who ignored the Jura and Franche Comte in the same publication, but it still a good book despite these shortcomings. To assist me on my journey, I decided to travel with three books The cuisine of the Rose by Mireille Johnston, The White Cities by Joseph Roth, and Roman Gaul and Germany by Anthony King.

 

Lyon is not a monumental and decadent city in the mould of Paris. This ancient city has grown up and expanded at the confluence of two of France's most important waterways; the Rhone and the Saone. The Roman colony of Lugdunum was founded in 43 B.C by Lucius Munatius Plancus, a leading officer serving under Julius Caesar during his campaigns and battles to subdue the Gallic tribes. The site chosen by this officer, who is also reputed to have founded Augusta Raurica in 44 B.C. not far from Basel, was previously a Gallic hill fort occupied by the Segusiani, and today this vantage point towers over Lyon and is known as the Fourviere hill. Its significant position on the Rhone and Saone lended this site to being used as an administrative centre with easy and speedy access north and south on the navigable river systems which passed through the city. Over the next three hundred years this settlement would be favoured by a number of Emperors and Lugdunum flourished as a result. Features of this development still visible today are the numerous aqueducts, theatre, odeon and the amphitheatre.

A view looking south across the Roman theatre, Fourviere, Lyon

The steep featured flanks of the Fourviere descend to the Rhone and a number of bridges and passerelles make communication with Presqu'ile quite easy. As the name suggests, Presqu'ile is not quite an island but a strip of land that has been cut and narrows to a point where it finally reaches the confluence of the Rhone and Saone.

Roman Gaul is proving to be a tourist attraction for the modern town of Lyon and the Roman theatre on the Fourviere hill is the most visible representation of this period of the city's history. When the Roman builders arrived on site in or about 15 B.C. to build the first theatre structure in Gaul, they must have welcomed the prospect of building a theatre structure on this site because the steep hillsides in the vicinity could be easily employed in the construction of a theatre. While the slopes would minimise the need for a freestanding outer wall and a complicated series of vaults, arches and supports there are visible remains of radial substructures supporting the cavea. The theatre measures 108 meters in diameter which makes it a little larger than those built at Arles (Arelate) and Orange (Arausio). The remains of three cavea are visible, the media cavea and summa cavea are only to be identified by the series of vaults and hemispherical wall structures that would have supported them, and the remains of the ruined vomitoria quite immense. The date of the initial construction of this theatre places it firmly within the reign of the Emperor Augustus and there is evidence to suggest it was restored and extended during the reign of Hadrian, and it is suggested the scaena frons was added during this period.

A view looking west towards the cavea of the Roman theatre, Fourviere, Lyon

Although it faces east and overlooks most of the city of Lyon today, the scaena frons structure situated in front of the seating would originally have been approximately 30 meters high, and thus the great panoramic view to be seen today over Lyon would have been not a particular feature of this theatre. The structure would have been ornately decorated and some elegantly carved column bases are to be found on site today.  The hillside has a number of other interesting structures, and just to the south can be found the Roman odeon which is thought to have been constructed during the 2nd Century A.D. This is 73 meters in diameter and also backs onto the hillside for support and its cavea are surrounded by an immense boundary or outer wall, which is quite distinctive and sets it apart from its neighbour the theatre. The orchestra measures 21 meters in diameter and is decorated in opus sectile with porphyry and other exotic stones and marbles from the distant far flung corners of the Roman Empire.

A column base from the Roman theatre site

To the north of the theatre and also nestled into the hillside is the musee de la civilisation gallo-romaine the exhibition spaces of which are sunk into the hillside. It houses an important collection of sarcophagi, inscriptions, decorative mosaics and other materials found in excavations from the area. The mosaic of the circus race is quite well preserved and evidence of the fact that one of the four circus tracks to be found in the Gallic provinces was located not too far from the Fourviere hill, and in close proximity to the Gier Aqueduct. The aqueduct may have been the source of the water used in the fountains along the spina depicted in the mosaic.

Detail of the Circus Mosaic, Musee de la Civilisation Gallo-Romaine, Lyon

The remains of the amphitheatre are to be found to the north west of Place des Terreaux. Leaving this grand square, travelling north, and proceeding towards the district of La Croix Rousse, it was not long before I was walking up a steep hill into which the amphitheatre was built in circa 19 A.D. This is another example of the Roman engineers and builders exploitation of the terrain to construct and support their structures.

 The remains of the amphitheatre, La Croix Rousse, Lyon

The amphitheatre was excavated and investigated in circa 1818, and the quartier was developed thereafter. The remains, which are now incorporated into a garden, are presently covered by roads, modern buildings and indeed cut in half by a tunnel built to alleviate the flow of traffic leading up to La Croix Rousse. The size of the amphitheatre is debatable but is clear that it was improved and extended through the centuries and must have been an impressive sight. Some commentators are of the opinion the structure was smaller than those at Arles and Nimes. However my impression is that, in its most developed state the amphitheatre in Lugdunum would have been as significant as the amphitheatres built at Arles and Nimes. The principal difference in Lugdunum, is that the amphitheatre was both reliant upon and contained by terrain it was built into.

An important inscription was found in 1957 yielded evidence for not only the build date but the people who financed its construction; the inscription pays testament and records the fact that a Gallo-Roman family from Saintes (Santons), most likely seeking to underline its loyalty to Rome and the Emperor, constructed the amphitheatre at their own expense. It must be noted that there is also a magnificent amphitheatre to be found not far form the centre of Saintes.
 

 An aerial view of the amphitheatre using Google Earth

Having left Corinne at the ugly Gare SNCF Perrache, (she was going home for the day), I struck out for La Croix Rousse on foot. After viewing the amphitheatre, I descended through the town peering in through the windows of various boulangeries as I went. This city has a number of sweets and delicacies which were invented here, and can only be found elsewhere in specialist shops. The lush red pralines, crystalline crusty coated almonds, appear in most windows in one guise or another; dotted in various types of sweetened bread or tart pralinee or sables pralinees. The choclatier Voisin has a number of stores around the city, and they are responsible for the famous coussin de Lyon; a sugared elegant green marzipan filled with rich chocolate grenache in the shape of a cushion.

I crossed the city towards Fourviere and climbed the steep hill, absolutely breathless and weak by the time I found the theatre in bright winter sunshine. The day was bitterly cold and nobody was there. After spending half an hour wandering around looking for the remains of the aqueducts, and various mausoleums, I was quite conscious of the fact that the bells had stopped chiming in the nearby churches, and lunch would be now available. Wandering back through the streets of St Just towards Vieux Lyon, I eventually arrived at the point where I had commenced my ascent of the Fourviere hill at the top of Rue du Boeuf.

The path of least resistance led me down the narrow cobbled street to a restaurant on Rue du Boeuf called Les Adrets. Being both hungry and thirsty, I entered a long narrow dining room paved with tiles with strained and heavily deflected ,wooden beams overhead. It was full but a space at a table was found and I ordered terrine de gibier to be followed by tete de veau along with a refreshing pot of cote du rhone. Despite being obviously foreign, my choises engendered me to those sitting beside me, and they inquired about my little adventure and what I places I had visited and offered advice on what I should see next.

In the restaurants of Lyon you frequently end up wondering if there is anything that you would like to eat on the menu. You need to be adventurous. The menus can be viewed with some intrepidation if you are anxious about ordering various types of tripe, offal or combinations of both. My tete de veau probably shortened my life by two weeks, but it was unctuous and bitter and satisfying; the mellow sweet flavour of the gelatinous fat was cut by a parsley vinaigrette dressing. This dish would be relished and devoured, without a second thought, by a boatman who had been working his vessel up the Rhone, from perhaps Valence, for the previous 20 hours, against a strong current and a bitterly cold mistral wind. Arriving at the quays in Lyon, with his hands paralysed by the cold wind, this dish would have revived such a man. My meal was finished with a fantastically rich quenelle of chocolate mousse and a coffee, and the knowledge that I would be sentenced to at least three months hard labour for eating everything that put in front of me on this trip.

Opus reticulatum and opus mixtum still visible on a support of the Gier Aqueduct, Lyon

As Lugdunum thrived in the 1st Century A.D. the requirement to augment the water supply became a necessity and it was decided that four aqueducts would be built to attend to this need. The longest of the aquaeducts is 86 kilometres in lenght using the river Gier as its source. Evidence from inscriptions and archaeology has not been of great assistance in the dating of this aqueduct. Some archaeology suggests it could have been constructed during the reign of Augustus but it is more likely that it was operational under the reign of Claudius. Inscriptions found at Chagnon and St Joseph date to the reign of Hadrian and introduce a ban on ploughing and sewing in the vicinity of the aqueduct.

I have already refered tothe lenghty pondering I experienced reading a number of Lyonnais restaurant menus, and my chosen reading prior to the trip had not fully prepared me for this very distinctive cuisine. The books probably were too heavily influenced by Dijon and the Bourgogne and neglected the indigenous fare of the Lyonnais. Over the five days of thisparticular visit I have discovered the Bouchon, which is a type of Lyonnais restaurant serving earthy, homely food, but typically Lyonnais using just about every edible part of a pig, cow, chicken or available fish; lentils, onions and macaroni are a feature of the Lyonnais cuisine.

The first Bouchon we dined in was La Meuniere. It was one the most enjoyable meals I have ever had. Most of the prepared food was laid out on a bench in the middle of the very dated and somehow complimentary dining room. It appeared not to have been decorated since the 50s or 60s and was somewhat spartan in appearance, however posters celebrating Beaujolais wine served as a strong suggestion as to what you should be ordering with your meal. The staff engaged with you in a very familiar way, and some diners received a reproach for failing to clear their plates. While I had a terrine to start, I decided to have poulet fermier a la vinaigre for my main course. I did not expect this dish to be as agreeable as it was. It was very good. Thereafter, I received slap on the hand when I thought the canut, a soft cream cheese with herbs and garlic, was my cheese course of preference. Instead I was directed to two large wooden boards full of locally produced cheeses.

The next Bouchon, was the similarly celebrated Le Garet. The menu of the day was noteworthy because it sums up for me what Lyonnais cuisine is all about; Salade de dent lion aux oreilles de cochon (a salad of dandilions with pigs ears); Omlette a la truffe Francaise; Ris de veau a la creme et champignons. I began my meal with an offering of five bowls from the kitchen containing, Lentil salad, mousseau (pickled face of cow thinly sliced), pied de veau, saucisson de veau et cochon, and tripe; collectively known as salad de cochonailles. A pot of Crozes Hermitage worked very well with this selection and the following plate of le tablier du sapeur, which was a section of marinated and fried tripe. The dessert was a homemade blackcurrant ice cream, barely sweetened, which was served with a bottle of vieux marc to use as you pleased, and I did!

 Some of the creations of the Patissier and choclatier Richard Seve

Food forms a very important part of Lyonnais living and they are proud of their traditional servings and just as proud of their influences on the new modern cuisine developing in France today. It is not based upon fusion or any passing weakness for a modish taste but merely a celebration and presentation of French food and its industry at its very best. The master boulangers, patissiers and affineurs that base themselves in Les Halles Paul Bocuse are representative of this ideal. They are some the best boulangers and patissiers in France and strive to produce the best quality food to a very high standard. You rarely witness crowds of people surrounding a butcher stall focusing on a butcher dressing a rack of lamb but this occurs most days at les Halles Paul Bocuse.

Street markets are also a feature of Lyon life, as they are of most French villages, towns and cities. Local producers sell their fresh vegetables and fruit and anything else they think the pubic will purchase. I spotted one vendor selling walnuts, walnut spreads, and huile de noix; the oil produced from the pressing of the walnuts. They also sold the tourteaux de noix, which is the dried remains of the pressed walnuts. It can be used much in much the same way as chestnut flour to flavour flour in making biscuits or in general baking.

My personal preference leans towards the everyday and traditional food of the bouchon which preserves the old dishes in an unglamorous and less ostentatious way. This food is generally consumed with the three princes of Lyon; Beaujolais, Cotes du Rhone, or Crozes Hermitage and after a few days my fear and intrepidation has turned, with a little understanding, into a sense of surprise at every menu. This understanding will no doubt encourage me to return and continue my exploration of the Gallo Roman ruins.

The Roman amphitheatre at Beziers

A View of Beziers from the ramparts looking west

Two years ago I passed Beziers on the train en route from Marseilles to Bordeaux. As the train pulled out of Beziers I saw for the first time the town's walls, citadel and cathedral perched high on a hillside. While on a short break to Carcassonne, I suggested to Corinne that we might consider a short excursion to either Beziers, Narbonne or Toulouse, which were within easy reach. We settled on Beziers and Corinne had yet again chosen to stand by and look at me roaming around gazing at another pile of stones, followed by an enjoyable, amiable and lengthy lunch at Restaurant Cote Sud, 19 rue Viennet.

The Romans founded a colony on the site of the modern town of Beziers, naming it Julia Baeterrae Septimanorum, on or about 36 - 35 B.C. Given the strong strategic qualities of the topography of this hilltop site and the proximity of the river Orb at the foot of the hill of St Nazaire to the west, it is not difficult to argue with their choice. The Romans were not the first to chose this site as archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of habitation dating to the 6th Century B.C.

The views commanded from the ramparts today further underline the importance of the site; the town stands at a point where the valley is almost at its broadest providing uninterrupted views to the north, west and south, most importantly up the valley towards Narbonne and beyond. Julia Baeterrae Septimanorum was also chosen because of the fact it stood on the Via Domitia. This was an overland route constructed by the Romans in 118 B.C. initially linking Italy to the colonia Narbo Martius [Narbonne], but as time went on and expansion continued the route was extended into Spain.

Medieval buildings along Rue des Arenes the curve of which was dictated by the amphitheatre

I initially wanted to find the Roman amphitheatre which I understood to be south east of the cathedral of St Nazaire. Finding Rue des Arenes in the quiet residential Quartier of St-Jacques, where some of the streets in the area were clearly following an ellipse, I knew the amphitheatre could not have been too far away, but we could not catch a glimpse of any opening or space that would reveal the remains of the amphitheatre.

Detail from a street sign

Getting desperate we asked an old man where we might find the amphitheatre, and he pointed us in the opposite direction where we found locked steal gates preventing entry and a view of the site. I was initially disappointed but climbed the barrier to get a better view. My disappointment continued as I always thought there would be more obvious visible signs of the amphitheatre's remains. A clearance where a part of the central area of the original arena had originally been was now roughly preserved as a garden or park with a number of surrounding buildings backing onto it, and others built across an area to the south where the amphitheatre had been dismantled.

View of the amphitheatre site looking north

The amphitheater at this particular site was in no way similar to the amphitheatres I had seen at Arles and Nimes. The scale of the amphitheatre at Beziers was never going to rival those structures; the structure at Beziers is estimated to have measured approximately 108.3 metres by 88.6 metres and reported to be capable of seating 13,700 people. However, as I gazed at the site an impression of the amphitheatre was slowly being built in my mind as I pondered the levels of occupation, some built directly on top of the supporting arches of the amphitheatre. I gradually felt quite fortunate to be viewing an amphitheatre from another perspective i.e. beneath more recent levels of occupation which had their own merit. In the case of the amphitheatre at Arles over 200 buildings were cleared from the structure and the areas around the amphitheatre during the 1820s in an attempt to restore and preserve the amphitheatre. Thus today at Beziers you can get a real idea of how a Roman amphitheatre impacts on a modern street plan and development of a town following its demise.

View to the north-west showing the top edge of an area where spectators possibly the media cavea would have been seated and structures to support further seating below

The amphitheatre is reported to date to the third quarter of the 1st century A.D. placing it in the great period of amphitheatre building under the Flavian emperors. The topography of the hill of St-Jacques lends itself well to the building of an amphitheatre as the south and west sides are built into the hillside. The amphitheatre in situ was built with stone like many of the other Roman amphitheatres built at this time; there is no evidence of brick in the visible remains of the substructures, arches and supports of the amphitheatre at Beziers.

A sketch or impression of the amphitheatre at Beziers dating to circa 1627 has been discovered, and this gives us an idea of the dilapidated state of the structure during the early 17th Century. It clearly illustrates the fact that not all of the structure had been reduced as a section of the elliptical exterior wall remains [page 131 of the PDF]. The sketch appears to have been made from a vantage point or building close to the aptly named Place du Cirque to the North of the amphitheatre. Still visible today is an elliptical wall of the arena in the sketch which appears in the photograph below.

View of the amphitheatre remains looking south

The thought that I was exploring the Roman amphitheatre after it had become inhabited and absorbed by the swelling population of the town following the demise of the amphitheatre from the end of the 3rd century A.D. was becoming more attractive to me. However, the fact that I could only do this from a distance, and at that from selected perches on top of various fences was not so attractive.

The stonework taken from the amphitheatre at Beziers was said to be used in the construction of the town's walls. This may be correct as the Roman provinces of Gaul were gradually destabilised and plunged into turmoil. Beziers would not have escaped the notice of invading Visigoths and Franks and was devastated by being sacked on numerous occasions over the last 2000 years; the Albigensian Crusade in 1209 being one of the most infamous. One might have thought there would have been little or no evidence on this site to be found of the Roman occupation, and in particular decorative material. However, in April 1844 10 statuary busts dating to the Julio-Claudian period were discovered in a cellar of a house on what is now called Boulevard Paul Riquet. The busts are now in the Musee Saint-Raymond in Toulouse.

As the Cathedral of St Nazaire at Beziers rolled into my line of sight as I sat on the train two years ago, the view was quite alluring and clearly echoed an ancient past. In reality the town of Beziers is a little disappointing. The lack of a map at the gare SNCF signals a general lack of interest. I may be biased but the Mairie or town council does not go out of its way to make the amphitheatre a landmark or accessible, and this is most unfortunate for the town. A few viewing platforms in locations, possibly in places where I was forced to climb fences, with informative displays (vandal proof if required) would not interfere or have a negative impact on the ambiance of the residential area, or indeed turn it into a tourist trap. Beziers clearly needs a boost to rise above the dull mediocrity and in many places the filth. This could be a start!

50 minutes in Rome; the Flavian amphitheatre and Arch of Constantine

An unfamiliar view from the south of the inner wall and structure of the Flavian amphitheatre

On the 29th October I began a quick trek around Europe. The main purpose of the trip was to deliver a boat from Sardinia to Palma da Mallorca. The first leg of the journey was from Dublin to Rome. I had originally calculated a possible 2 hours 30 minutes in Rome but my flight to Rome was delayed on the ground. When I finally arrived I was left in a bit of a dilemma; there was just over two hours to my next flight and any contemplated trip to Rome would be all too brief. What could possibly achieved by travelling into Rome for such a short period of time? On the other hand, there are few experiences as nauseating as languishing in an airport terminal for a couple of hours.

After inspecting the train times I decided to buy a return ticket for the train. In Italy trains arrive and depart on time, and the success of this little leap of faith was dependant upon this prior experience of Italian rail travel. Fortunately, there were to be no surprises and I arrived in time and made my way to the Flavian amphitheatre, cherishing any sights of the eternal city as I went. Even as the train arrived into Stazion Termini I was captivated by the walls of the ancient city, a large triumphal gate and basilica.

First view of the Flavian amphitheatre or Colosseum

Following a forced march of about 14 minutes (there was not a moment to be lost), I glanced to my left and caught my first sight of the attic storey of the amphitheatre towering above the Roman skyline. As you get closer the immensity of the structure becomes more apparent. It is the largest amphitheatre in the Roman world measuring 189 meters by 156 meters. Only the amphitheatres at Pozzuoli, which was also built under the reigns of Vespasian (9A.D. - 79A.D.) and Titus (39A.D. - 81A.D.), and Capua come close. For a building that is nearly 2000 years old you cannot but be impressed by the scale of the structure and a moment later its purpose.

View of damage to the south side caused by an earthquake in 1349

The construction of the amphitheatre was commenced under the Emperor Vespasian circa 72 A.D., completed by Titus and dedicated in 79 A.D. Cassius Dio in his Roman Histories, Epitome, Book LXVI, XXV describes the spectacles, and entertainments, recording the events in some detail:

"in dedicating the hunting-theatre and the baths that bear his name he produced many remarkable spectacles. There was a battle between cranes and also between four elephants; animals both tame and wild were slain to the number of nine thousand; and women (not those of any prominence, however) took part in dispatching them. As for the men, several fought in single combat and several groups contended together both in infantry and naval battles. For Titus suddenly filled this same theatre with water and brought in horses and bulls and some other domesticated animals that had been taught to behave in the liquid element just as on land.

He also brought in people on ships, who engaged in a sea-fight there, impersonating the Corcyreans and Corinthians; and others gave a similar exhibition outside the city in the grove of Gaius and Lucius, a place which Augustus had once excavated for this very purpose. There, too, on the first day there was a gladiatorial exhibition and wild-beast hunt, the lake in front of the images having first been covered over with a platform of planks and wooden stands erected around it.

On the second day there was a horse-race, and on the third day a naval battle between three thousand men, followed by an infantry battle. The "Athenians" conquered the "Syracusans" (these were the names the combatants used), made a landing on the islet and assaulted and captured a wall that had been constructed around the monument. These were the spectacles that were offered, and they continued for a hundred days; but Titus also furnished some things that were of practical use to the people. He would throw down into the theatre from aloft little wooden balls variously inscribed, one designating some article of food, another clothing, another a silver vessel or perhaps a gold one, or again horses, pack-animals, cattle or slaves. Those who seized them were to carry them to the dispensers of the bounty, from whom they would receive the article named."

The design of the amphitheatre was in itself innovative. The amphitheater had no Hellenic precedent and many similar Roman structures prior to the building of the Flavian amphitheater were temporary wooden structures; the historians Suetonius and Tacitus both record that the Emperor Nero built a large wooden amphitheater at the Campus Martius in 56 A.D. However, It is not possible to state with any certainty whether these were eliptical in format or not. The facade of the amphitheater is loosely based upon the Theatre of Marcellus in Rome, which was inaugurated by Augustus in 12 B.C., and in particular the manner in which the classical orders were used to decorate the arcaded facade of the structure.

The outer wall comprised three stories of superimposed arcades surmounted by a podium and attic story, both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. There is a hierarchical progression in the representation of the orders on the facade which frame the arcades. The lower storey is decorated with the Doric order, second story with the Ionic, the third story with the highly decorative Corinthian order, and finally the attic and podium with Corinthian pilasters.

Detail of the third storey and attic level

The amphitheatre remained in use for over 400 years being upgraded and decorated by successive emperors. In that time it survived fires, numerous earthquakes, and in 217 A.D. it was closed for a 5 year period after being struck by lightning. With the demise and contraction of the city of Rome the amphitheatre like many others was converted to urban use, and the stone and marble was stripped for other structures in the city. A church was built into the structure and the amphitheatre became inhabited finally being converted into a castle by the Frangipani family. A clearing and restoration of the amphitheatre began in the early 18th century.

Detail of the lower levels

The arch of Constantine is situated a stones throw from the Flavian amphitheatre. Viewing the arch gives you an insight into a number of eras of Roman artistic styles and sculptural traditions. The simple reason for this is that much of the ornament and sculpture on the arch was taken from earlier periods and monuments. Not only was there a practice of reusing earlier sculpture and ornament, also known as spolia, during the period but there is also evidence to suggest that sites themselves were reused and regenerated. Where the arch of Constantine now stands archaeologists have found the remains of earlier foundations, and theories suggest that structures dating to the periods of Domitian and Hadrian may have occupied the site prior to 315 A.D.

View of the Arch of Constantine from the north

The arch was commissioned by the Roman Senate following Constantine's (272A.D.- 337A.D.) victory over Maxentius at the battle of the Milvian bridge in 312 A.D. The monument was completed on or about 315 A.D. and is very much a conglomerate of reliefs from other monuments in tandem with some contemporary friezes and reliefs. It is difficult to surmise if this is a result of a rush job in an effort to get the job completed, or if difficult economic times were taking hold, because there are certain abnormalities in the decoration and carving of the entablature which would leave one to believe that the construction was not executed with the care one would expect.

Whether the construction was quick or the quality of carving and building suffered from an economic slump, it worth noting that the choice of the reliefs has been done with some care and aplomb; the clear object being to create a strong and recognisable political message. The inference was that Constantine as Emperor was to be seen in a similar light and compared to his successful and popular predecessors such as Trajan (53A.D.- 117A.D.), Hadrian (76A.D.- 138A.D.) and Marcus Aurelius (121A.D.- 180A.D.).

The Roman Senate was paying tribute to Constantine, but he himself was probably eagerly seeking support and to strenghten his image and popularity in that part of the Roman world. Another point in support of this theory is the obvious reference point to the arch of Septimius Severus erected in 203 A.D. which is very similar in format and design and stands not too far away in the Roman Forum.

A number of theories exist debating the origins, development and history of the structure. The arch itself has a great number of sculptures and carved panel reliefs. As you look at the various reliefs and scenes depicted you can experience a brief tour and insight into sculpture and artistic traditions from the reigns' of Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius and Constantine.

Relief on the attic storey of the west side from the reign of Trajan

Relief on the attic storey of the east side from the reign of Trajan

The figures of 8 Dacian soldiers standing on top of the columns on the attic story and flanking the inscription date to the reign of Trajan. Four reliefs, two of which are illustrated above, are also thought to have come from the period of Trajan and research suggests that they were taken from Trajan's forum, which was still standing and being used at the time the arch was constructed. They refer to idealised episodes of the Dacian wars and the virtues of the Emperor.

Reliefs above the eastern arch of the north side

Eight roundels or tondi decorate the facade and date to the time of the reign of Hadrian, or just after it. The tondi feature hunting and sacrificial scenes and were originally set against a porphyry background as in the example above. Antoninus, Hadrian's lover, has been identified in a hunting scene on the north face and scholars have also suggested that some of the characters features have been changed to represent Constantine's family members and Constantine himself.

Reliefs above western arch of the north side

There are rectangular panels above the tondi in the attic story, eight in total placed in pairs on either side of the inscription. Scholars are in agreement to the extent that they date from the period of the reign of Marcus Aurelius. Furthermore, some writers have suggested that the panels were taken from a triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius which was dedicated in 176 A.D. celebrating his victories over the Sarmatian and Germanic tribes. Other theories, based upon a stylistic analysis, suggest the panels have come from more than one source, but as they are all the same size the argument for more than one source may be somewhat weak.

In any event these panels were re carved and modified during the reign of Constantine to be used on the arch. The scenes represent a now similar theme of departure and preparation for campaign, addressing the armies, the campaign itself, and its aftermath including the subjugation of the enemy.

Hadrianic Roundels with Constantinian relief below depicting the siege of Verona on the south side

The depictions in the reliefs of the early 4th century represent a definite shift from the veristic approach employed by the carvers and designers from the reign of Trajan. The Constantinian craftsmen adopted a naive or impressionistic representation of the human form, while still referencing some conventions of landscape and cityscape utilised by their predecessors. The Constantinian friezes represent a narrative of important episodes and victories including the preparations for, and battle of the Milvian bridge, culminating in Constantines triumphant entrance into Rome, and addressing the people. In one very evocative scene Constantine is portrayed enthroned as dominus flanked by the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Hadrian establishing Constantine's unchallengable sovereignty and lineage.

Further Constantinian reliefs can be found in the spandrels above the arch depicting winged victories and the river gods, and low reliefs representing soldiers and prisoners can be seen in the podium base to the arch or socles.

Hadrianic Roundels with Constantinian relief below depicting the battle of the Milvian bridge on the south side

Inscription from the south facade flanked by Trajan's Dacian prisoners and the panels of Marcus Aurelius

An inscription appears in the center of the attic story and is translated as follows:

To the Emperor Caesar Flavius Constantinus, the Greatest, pious, fortunate, the Senate and people of Rome, by inspiration of divinity and his own great mind with his righteous arms
on both the tyrant and his faction in one instant in rightful battle he avenged the republic,
dedicated this arch as a memorial to his military victory.

The inscription is interesting from a number of view points. It unreservedly reflects the support of the Senate and People of Rome for the Emperor Constantine. It also goes on to announce Constantine was inspired by a divinity in defeating the tyrant Maxentius. It does not identify which god was the source of this inspiration, but it is widely thought that the reference was supportive of the Christian faith and an ongoing toleration of that faith. Did Constantine have any input or collaborate in the formualtion of the inscription? Famously, Constantine was careful not to convert to Christianity until his death bed and this may have been politically expedient at the time rather than an attempt to be absolved from all his sins near to death.

The arch in some repects represents an odd series of unusual Roman contradictions and perhaps mystery (which may be solved by a little further reading adn understanding). The arch does not commemorate a triumph publicly proclaimed in the normal way by the Emperor Contantine following his defeat of Maxentius, who had previously proclaimed himself as Emperor in 306 A.D. The Senate possibly felt somewhat uneasy and exposed after Maxentius departed Rome, and its supporting factions, to meet Constantine on the battlefield.

Another contradiction is the fact that the scenes depicted represent previous Emperors' and the Roman army's triumphs over foreign armies, thus extending and securing the Roman frontiers. This is seperate and distinct to a Roman army marching on Rome and against Romans, which had rarely happened before except in the political turmoil surrounding pivotal episodes in the careers of Sulla and Julius Caesar, and the history of late republic.

Perhaps the arch was built to patch up a number of issues and problems for all concerned. The dedication of the arch served the Senate to be reverent and proclaim their support for their Emperor. The message it bore did little to harm Constantine's grip on the Roman empire. Furthermore, the reference to divine inspiration would have been readily recognisable as a toleration of the christian faith, but also possibly was understood to be a continuation and preservation of connection between the emperor and divinity, without going so far as to proclaim himself as being divine or "DIVI".

I had very little time at the site, approximately 16 minutes, before I had to turn on my heels and run back to the station. I managed to get to the train station, out of breath, and more importantly caught the train back to the airport. Full of relief, hot and exhausted, I was very happy to have foregone the airport departure lounge and breaking away to experience the sights which I had first marvelled at through the paintings of Panini and breath taking prints of Piranesi.

Besancon

View looking South over the rooftops of Besancon from Fort Griffon towards the Citadelle

I first arrived in Besancon in March of this year and have been back a number of times with Corinne (my better half). The East of France and the Franche Comte region had eluded me up to this time, and admittedly I knew few details of its history, culture and folklore; I was in general terms aware of the expansion of the Roman provinces in Gaul and a little more recent general history of the area but was totally unprepared for the uniqueness of the region incorporating the Doubs, Haut Doubs and Jura.

Upon leaving the train station at Besancon, I was driven away by Corinne's father on a circuitous route, which navigated its way through old fortifications, redoubts and ramparts in the north of the town and then eventually eastwards along the Doubs. This city is not big but impressive and located on a significant strategic site, on a vast sweeping bend in the river Doubs. It has been settled for many thousands of years, but came to prominence as Vesontio over two thousand years ago, when it was the first city of the Sequani tribe. They in turn came were subjugate by and came under the influence of the Romans, under the command of Julius Caesar, and despite a number of revolts during the early empire the site was further developed and romanised with an aquaduct, lavishly decorated buildings, an amphitheatre and triumphal arch known locally as "la porte noire".

Roman Amphitheatre remains at Besanson

Neptune Mosaic found on the site of the Abbey of St. Paul in 1973, Musee des Beaux-Arts et d'Archeologie de Besancon.

Reading the ancient historian's and source's descriptions of places, and routes taken, it is easy to be misled by dry narratives evoking generic landscapes, mountains, rivers and passes, however Julius Caesar in his De Bello Gallico describes this settlement with extraordinary clarity, care and conciseness. Roman preparations for war left little to chance and Julius Caesar identified a base that could sustain his armies in Winter and through the Summer, with the unsettled and enemy frontiers not too distant.

Book 1:38 recounts as follows:

"When he had proceeded three days' journey, word was brought to him that Ariovistus was hastening with all his forces to seize on Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani, and had advanced three days' journey from its territories. Caesar thought that he ought to take the greatest precautions lest this should happen, for there was in that town a most ample supply of every thing which was serviceable for war; and so fortified was it by the nature of the ground, as to afford a great facility for protracting the war, inasmuch as the river Doubs almost surrounds the whole town, as though it were traced round it with a pair of compasses. A mountain of great height shuts in the remaining space, which is not more than 600 feet, where the river leaves a gap, in such a manner that the roots of that mountain extend to the river's bank on either side. A wall thrown around it makes a citadel of this [mountain], and connects it with the town. Hither Caesar hastens by forced marches by night and day, and, after having seized the town, stations a garrison there."

An early incription refering to Vesontio possibly dating to the period of the Emperor Trajan

Following the demise of the provinces of Roman Gaul, Besancon was eventually incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire until it came under the influence of the Dukes of Burgundy, and thence following a strategic marriage, the Habsburgs. In 1674 Besancon became a French town and a few years later the city was in effect transformed by the arrival of the military architect Sebastien le Prestre de Vauban. He was commissioned by Louis XIV primarily to redesign and reconstruct the Citadelle, a grand task which took 30 years, being completed in 1711.

Other fortifications, on hilltops around the city received attention including Fort Griffon, and these forts, ramparts redoubts and defences still dominate and characterise the city today. These new strategic defences were planned in great detail and utilised the local contours, terrain and features of the land upon which they were constructed, a particular feature of Vauban's planning and engineering; the Roman amphitheatre was incorporated and utilised in the establishment of some of the outer defences and ramparts at Fort Griffon.

View of the inner entrance gate of the Vauban Citadelle

Palais Granvelle 16th Century

Buildings on the banks of the Doubs in Besancon

One of my primary interests when arriving in a town is to discover the food and local produce, and local markets are key to this experience. In Besancon, as with most French cities and towns, there is a covered market selling produce daily and an open air market in front of the Musee des Beaux-Arts et Archeologie selling fresh fruit and vegetables.

Before I ever thought of visiting Besancon I was aware of the two most famous cheeses produced in the area; Mont D'Or and Comte. The local breed of cow is the Montbeliard, and these cute docile beauvines are primarily used for dairy production. Smoked hams and sausages called saucise de morteau are full of flavour and are traditionally boiled and served with boiled cabbage and potatoes. However, more modern recipes combine the saucise with reductions of local wines, such as a Poulsard. Artisanal charcuteries such as the one operated by Pierrette and Daniel Buchiex [www.lafermettecomtoise.com] produce a wonderful selection of cured meats and charcuterie; not always shaped in the familiar manner of a sausage, a small square not dissimilar to a pont leveque make these cured meats very tempting indeed. While some features and characteristics of Besancon are thoroughly French, there is an undeniable connection and suggestion of a German or Swiss tradition and the proximity of the Swiss border and the mountains is inescapable.


One surprise for me was the fact that the Theatre in Besancon was built to the designs of Claude Nicolas Ledoux. Ledoux, a unique architect for his time, was favoured by royal commissions for a period prior to the revolution and was commissioned to design and build the Royal Saltworks at Arc-et-Senans, not far from Besancon. He has since gained notoriety for his futuristic designs and projects proposed in the area of the Loue valley, but sadly many of these were not undertaken. The designs produced by Ledoux for the theatre were ground breaking for the time, and incorporated a sunken orchestra and sound box behind it, to project and enhance the acoustics of the theatre. Unfortunately, due to a fire all that remains today of the original theatre is the exterior facade.

In my recent adventures, I have also visited the Royal Saltworks, Haut doubs, Loue river valley and other places of interest in the region and hope you will visit this webpage again in the coming weeks to catch up, or take some time out during your day to see these places and read my comments.

19th June - Amphitheatres at Arles and Nimes

Having always a had an interest in the history and archaeology of the Roman Provinces, I read with some interest a press release in May issued by the French Ministry of Culture stating, among other things, that a number of pieces of Roman sculpture were recovered from the Rhone close to Arles. The press release boldly identified a life size bust as an aging Julius Caesar, who founded the Roman colonia of Arles in 46 B.C. The attribution appears to have been a little quick and has been the subject of much debate ever since.

Rome was allied with Massilia (Marseille) as early as 154 B.C. when Rome offered assistance in repelling Ligurian raiders. Later incursions resulted in the establishment of a castellum at Aquae Sextiae (Aix-en-Provence) in 124 B.C. However, the province of Gallia Transalpina, and later to be named Gallia Narbonensis, was not established until 121 B.C. when in a number of actions involving armies under the command of Quintus Fabius Maximus and Domitius Ahenobarbus, the Allobroges and Arverni tribes were defeated. Not long after (circa 118 B.C.) the first infrastructure was put in place and a secure road called the Via Domitia was laid out linking northern Italy north eastern Spain. Just over 60 years later Julius Caesar pacified the remainder of Gaul and thereafter, despite the odd minor revolt, the provinces of Gaul and in particular Gallia Nabonenis thrived.

Stability allowed development and romanisation of many settlements, and the current locations of Arles, Beziers, Frejus, Nice, Nimes, and Orange pay testament to the extensive building programs of the Roman period. On this day, I was making my way to one of the most important Roman colonia in Gallia Narbonensis, Arles, or Arelate as it was once known.

On exiting the railway station, just outside the town, you are greeted by the river Rhone. Looking downstream, and situated on a bend on the river is the town of Arles. Just visible above the rooftops are the distinctive powerful stone arches of the arena at the centre of the town.

Narrow medeval streets surround the arena, terminating and opening up giving access to monumental amphitheatre. The arched stone walls of the amphitheatre rise impressively and defiantly before you. The structure is built on a small incline and measures 136 meters long, 107 meters wide. With its 34 tiers the arena is reported to have been capable of seating in excess of 20,000 spectators. The decline of the Roman Empire during the 5th century the amphitheatre was gradually occupied by the town's people, and by the 1820s there were 212 buildings and two churches within the structure. These houses were cleared out between 1826 and 1830 and the interior of the area restored to its present and dramatic glory.

After paying an admission fee you are free basically free to roam, clamber about, and examine the ancient stones that make up the structure. Restoration, as I already stated commenced in the 1820s, and continues at the present time. Certain parts of the facade are currently being renovated with freshly cut stone. In one respect, this proposes to give a better impression of what some elements of the original structure and facade looked like, but in my heart I cannot but feel some of the romance, age and history of the structure has been eroded and lost in the process. Significantly, today the arena is not only an attraction, and archaeological site, but is still used for bull fighting, a traditional entertainment in the Camargue.

Not far from the amphitheatre is a Roman theatre, which was also built during the 1st century A.D. The site is impressive, but little remains of the 50 meter wide semicircular theatre. Only a few tiers of the theatre survive, but the immense buttressing supports that exist behind these tiers, and some elements of the original exterior wall preserved in adjacent buildings give an impression of how big the original theatre was.This site is being renovated in a similar way to the amphitheatre to reveal and flesh out some of its former appearance. Excavations are also taking place on the theatre; beautifully detailed, crisp cut marble sections of cornice and other architectural elements were to be found all over this site.

Leaving Arles by the late afternoon, I decided to make my way to Nimes (Nemausus) and explore the amphitheatre there. Nemausus became a Roman colonia after Arles in 28 B.C. and is probably one of the most impressive towns in the region in terms of Roman Architecture. While the colonia was walled and Maison Caree constructed under the reign of the Emperor Augustus, the construction of significant buildings in the the colonia, and infrastructure, continued to be developed for many years. No small part in this colonia's development arises from its close association with the Emperor Antoninus Pius, whose father was born at Nemausus. The largest remaining building, which dominates the town is the amphitheatre, which was built towards the end of the second century A.D.

The structure of the amphitheatre is more complete than the one at Arles and measures 133 meters long, 101meters wide. Signs of habitation following the Roman decline do still exist, and the facade does not appear to have been the subject of renovation efforts similar to those employed at Arles. Unfortunately, I arrived too late to gain entry, but from glimpses snatched through, an entrance the interior passages, walkways, and arena itself appear to have suffered less from the ravages of time than the one at Arles.


After a little local refreshment, and with the sun setting, I set out for the Via Domitia and modern SNCF rail network, which would take me back through Marseille and eventually to Toulon.